Lessons

The Elder Edda - Literary Sources 2

In the previous lesson we were introduced to the Havamal, a poem which includes a description of the discovery of the runes. The Havamal is just one poem in a book called the Elder Edda and in this and the next couple of lectures we will be considering the Eddas and the other literary sources which can shed some light upon the runes.

That part of the Havamal which covers the finding of the runes is a very small section in a much longer poem. Equally we will find in all of the other texts which make up the Eddas that lines about runes are very much in the minority. None of the tales in the Eddas are about runes, nor does any offer much greater clues to their meaning and usage than those we have already seen in the Havamal. Any journey needs a starting point though and the Eddas form a good one for us, not because they say much about the runes but because they say anything at all.

The world of those who first used the runes is lost to us but it would be a very unfamiliar one: a world where the gods intervened directly and magic was common place. One had to be wary and use ones wits because magic enabled many subtle forms of treachery and deception, as we will see in the tales of the Eddas. The gods, who we met in the second and third lessons, regularly travelled into the world and potentially any ordinary person might meet them.To fully appreciate the runes and the concepts which underlie them then we need to rediscover this mindset. Here the Eddas can assist us.

They offer a look at living breathing gods, giving us tales in which the Norse gods cease to be distant symbols and become more rounded characters. We can laugh at the absurdity of Thor in a dress, marvel at the cunning of Odin and thrill at the deceptions of Loki. Moreover in the universe portrayed in these tales the runes are not a curiosity, something bizarre or supernatural. They are powerful, but natural and while mastery of them is limited to a few, there is a general acceptance of them. Indeed the reason that little is said about the runes is that little need be said. The runes can serve as a cultural short-hand. Those few lines in the Havamal about the runes serve to validate the rest of the text. Coming near the end of the Havamal the passage about Odin's discovery of, and aptitude with, the runes, illustrate the truth, and source, of his wisdom seen in the rest of the poem.

Whilst the Eddas are not the only texts to mention the runes, two things make them significant for anyone serious about trying to understanding them. Firstly there are the number of different references to the runes, in a wide variety of contexts. While individually they can seem insignificant, taken collectively they provide quite a body of information. Secondly, the Eddas offer social information which can assist us in better appreciating the concepts which lie behind the runes. They did not emerge from nowhere and their historical meanings reflect the beliefs and culture of a particular society. Saying that Fehu (Feoh) represents cattle or Tiwaz (Tir) represents a spear means little unless we can understand the associations these objects had for ancient peoples. Hearing that Odin was cunning and skilled in the art of communication, as reflected in the Ansuz (Os) rune, gains added impact when we are able to witness first hand his contest of wits with a giant, as indeed we can in the Eddas.

In lessons two and three we met the gods and you learned about them, being given a list of some of their achievements and key characteristics. In the next two lessons you will be able to judge for yourself how accurate these were based on their portrayal in the Eddas. We will immerse ourselves in the universe of the Eddas so that when we start to look at the runes themselves in detail in lecture seven you will have absorbed much of the mythology and world picture which underlies them. As we saw in the lesson on the discovery of the runes, the runes are part of the Norse mythology and cosmology and hence by discovering more about these through the Eddas you will enhance your knowledge of this. For example we saw how Odin was fixed to Yggdrasil but just what is the significance of that tree? Through reading the Eddas you will be able to deepen your knowledge and understanding of the place of the World Tree and so better appreciate what the runes being found at the base of the tree means.

The precise meaning of the term "Edda" is unclear and hence a matter of debate amongst scholars. There are however two Eddas and in this lesson we will be focussing on the Elder Edda.

The Elder, or Poetic, Edda is a collection of poems and other material gathered between the 9th and 12th centuries. It is sometimes attributed to the Icelandic priest Saemund the Wise and it is possible he is responsible for its collection but he is certainly not the author. The author or more likely authors is/are unknown and likely to remain so. There are two distinct sections to the Poetic Edda, a mythical one consisting of 15 poems and a heroic one of 23 heroic lays. For those interested in the runes the mythical section is of greater significance. Some of its key poems are -

Voluspa (Song of the Sybil)
A detailed description from a wise prophetess/witch of the creation of the cosmos, its structure, the gods and their fate. It tells of Ymir from whose blood came oceans, from whose flesh came the earth and from his bones the mountains. Moving on then to describe the first man (Ash) and the first woman (Elm).

Then from the host three came
Great, merciful, from the god's home:
Ash and Elm, on earth they found,
Faint, feeble with no fate assigned them

Breath they had not, not blood nor senses,
Nor language posessed, not life-hue:
Odin gave them breath, Haenir senses
Blood and life hue Lothur gave

It ends with a description of the events of Ragnarok and the death of the gods. The earth is destroyed to rise again. There are echoes of the Christian Second Coming with the god Baldur resurrected and a world now without evil. The runes have out-lived Odin and have their part to play in what is to come.

At Ida's Field the Aesir meet:
They remember the worm of Middle-Earth
Ponder again the great twilight
And the ancient runes of the high god

Havamal (or Words of the High One)
We have already looked at this poem in some detail so we won't dwell on it again. It is important to recognize though that the vast majority of this poem is not about the runes, but is offering ethical and social guidance.

Of his knowledge a man should never boast
Rather be sparing of speech
When to his house a wiser comes:

Vafthrudnismal (Sayings of Vafthrudnir)
A tale reflecting two key characteristics of the god Odin, his love of disguise and his wisdom. Odin (in disguise) visits a famous giant in order to match wits against him. The poem consists of a series of questions and answers, relating to the world and gods, between Gragnod (Odin) and the giant. One answer could be taken as suggesting divinatory use of the runes.

From the runes of the giants, from the runes of the gods,
I can read the truth aright:

Grimnismal (Words of Grimnir)
Odin visits king Geirrod, a foster-son of his, again in disguise. However Odin's wife Frigga goes there before him and warns Geirrod to beware of a stranger that dogs don't bark at. Thus Geirrod is tricked into imprisoning and torturing Gragnod (Odin) for which the king pays a heavy price. This tale contains also some detailed descriptions of Yggdrasil

Under Yggdrasil hide more serpents
Than dull apes dream of
Goin and Moin, Grafvitnir's sons,
Sleepbringer, Unraveler, shall bite off
Twigs of that tree forever

Skirnir (Words of Skirnir)
The god Frey is in love with Gerd. His servant Skirnir is dispatched to persuade her to accept his suit. Skirnir tries various approaches with her including bribery before finally resorting to threat. Interestingly he invokes troll runes which we can take as runic charms with the power to hurt or cause disruption. He marks these only offering to remove these when she submits

I score troll runes, then I score three letters,
Filth, frenzy, lust:
I can score them off as I score them on
If I find sufficient cause

Harbarzljoth (Lay of Harbard)
The god Thor is hindered in his attempt to cross a river by the ferryman Harbard. The two engage in a contest of matching deeds, deteriorating eventually into shouting insults and abuse at each other. Harbard is undoubtedly a disguised god, most probably Odin though Loki too is sometimes suggested.

Hymiskvitha (Lay of Hymir)
The gods Thor and Tyr are dispatched to the giant Hymir in order to bring back his magic cauldron which the gods need. Once there Thor eats so many oxen that they have to go fishing to replenish the larder. Hymir catches two whales but Thor hooks the Midgard Serpent. On their return Hymir is betrayed by his wife who tells the two gods how to defeat him. Of interest with respect to runes is the start of the poem describing the lifestyle of the gods.

Long ago the gods had game in abundance

Ate their fill, feasting together
Scored runes and relished blood.
In Aegir's hall there was great plenty

Lokasenna (Loki's Mocking)
The gods organize a party to celebrate and use their new ale cauldron and Loki gatecrashes it killing one of the servants. The gods are far from pleased by his arrival and bar him entry until he appeals directly to Odin

Remember Odin, in the olden days
What blood-brothers we were:
You would never have dreamed of drinking ale
Unless it was brought for us both

Loki's intention is to cause strife amongst the gods and he begins taunting them. Many of the incidents referred to are unknown outside this poem. Loki casts aspersions on all the gods and goddesses, challenging their wisdom, their courage and offering details of their sexual exploits. Only Thor's arrival persuades him to stop.

Thrymskvitha (Lay of Thrym)
Thor awakes to find his Hammer has been stolen, seeking the help of Loki in tracking it down. Loki discovers that the giant Thrym has it he that he will only agree to return it if Freya will be his bride. Since she won't agree to this deal however Thor dresses up as her and goes to Thrym in her place. When the Hammer is handed over Thor reveals himself and kills the giant.

Alvismal (Story of Alvis)
The dwarf Alvis seeks to marry Thor's daughter. Thor was not consulted by the gods before they agreed and is unhappy. He tells Alvis he will only give his permission if Alvis can answer all the questions he asks. This the dwarf manages but they talk for so long that dawn breaks. Alvis does not have time to get back underground and so turns to stone having been tricked by Thor.

Baldrs Draumar (Baldur's Dreams)
The god Baldur has been troubled by prophetic dreams. After a council of the gods has met Odin journeys to the underworld and uses the power of the runes to raise the spirit of a long dead witch (volva) who explains the dreams meaning.

The blood-dabbled hound of Hel faced him,
Howling in frenzy at the father of runes.
The High One halted at the eastern gate,
Where loomed a tumulus, tomb of a witch
Runes he chanted, charms of power:
Her spectre rose whom his spell commanded
To enlighten the god with the lore of the dead

Rigsthula (Lay of Rig)
Tells how the god Heimdall descends to earth and so establishes the three levels of society as well as passing on the knowledge of the runes.

Conclusion

In order to use the runes for divination and magic it is not necessary to read the Eddas or indeed to memorize them. They do however provide considerable insight into the picture of the universe which the ancient Vikings had, of the behavior of the gods and many of the concepts underlying the runes. We see that the gods themselves made heavy use of the runes moreover the runes are used magically in two ways, firstly being scored on wood, as Skirnir does, and secondly spoken or chanted aloud as Odin does at the gate of Hel. This lesson serves only to offer an overview of the Poetic Edda, you will read many of the tales in detail for yourself as the course progresses.

You have completed the lesson. Read it as many times as you need to in order to feel you understand it. Then return here for:
Lesson 5 - Comprehension Tests, Reading and Further Exercises

Please ensure you complete these exercises before moving on to the next lesson.