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The Prose Edda - Literary Sources 3

In the previous lesson we were introduced to the Poetic, or Elder, Edda. We will now focus our attention on the second of the two Eddas, the Prose, or Younger, Edda.

As its alternative title suggests, the Younger Edda, is indeed written in prose though it draws heavily on its predecessor as a source. It was written by the Icelandic historian and poet Snorri Sturlson in the 12th century. One suggestion is that it was intended to be a handbook for poets to guide them in the construction of the type of sophisticated poetry receipted at court. The title of the second section of the Younger Edda translates as "Poetic Diction" and introduces various kennings which are a complex metaphorical device found in ancient poetry, explaining the stories behind them. The third part looks at poetic meters. Thus the Younger Edda is very much concerned with literary style and is a very different creature from the Elder Edda. We will be concentrating looking at the first section, Gylfaginning, which deals with Norse myth and looking briefly at the second section.

One problem that we face is that there are clear inconsistencies between the Poetic and Prose Eddas. That said though there are contradictions sometimes between different parts of the Poetic Edda and that does not stop it from being of interest and use to us. As we saw in the second Lesson in this course, myths are not static. Odin started as a minor weather deity and grew in importance as time passed. Equally the world picture and the way in which the various cosmic elements inter-related was also subject to modification. Myth is a way in which society explains things. For example in Norse mythology the rainbow is the Bifrost bridge which connects heaven and earth. Hence without science to explain the process of diffraction ancient man came up with a reason for the existence of the rainbow. The fact it is magical explains then why we cannot always see it and can never get near it. Variations in myth can reflect changes in belief, in need, in priority, or just different opinions on the part of two authors. We should not necessarily expect internal consistency in myth. Trying to draw a coherent map of the cosmos based on the Eddas is to misunderstand them. The world of myth is a magical world and hence beyond rational explanation and the rules of science which bind us.

Gylfaginning

The Gylfaginning (or the Deluding of Gylfi) tells of a king of Sweden, named Gylfi, who after an encounter with the Aesir resolved to visit Asgard, home of the gods, for himself. Hence Gylfi disguises himself as an old man and makes his way to Asgard. However as the Prose Edda makes clear

"but the Aesir were wiser than he, in that they had foreknowledge. They saw his journey before he came, and worked spells against him

Hence everything Gylfi sees in Asgard is an illusion and he hears only what the gods want him to hear. We can see from some of the things said that the gods are clearly playing with him yet since they frequently quote the Elder Edda, a source we have no reason to doubt, not everything that is said can be false. In Asgard he finds a mighty hall with the three imaginatively-named deities, High-One, Just-As-High and Third. He begins by questioning them about the gods being told about the All-father who they give 12 different names to. They then relate how the cosmos began. In the beginning there was only Ginnungagap (open void) with the first world being Muspell in the south which was hot and fiery. It was and is guarded by Surt who is destined to vanquish the gods at Ragnarok. In the south formed Nifhelm, a harsh inhospitable land of ice and cold. It was the union of heat and cold, fire and ice, meeting in the central area between the two lands that started the process that led to the formation of the earth.

"where the soft air of the heat met the frost so that it thawed and dripped, then, by the might of that which sent the heat, life appeared in the drops of running fluid and grew into the likeness of a man. He was given the name Ymir."

As we heard in the previous lesson, it was from the body of Ymir that the Earth was fashioned and the Younger Edda goes into considerable detail about the mechanism. This is typical of the Prose Edda, expanding upon detail provided in its predecessor. For learning about the runes much of this is irrelevant detail, but because this is the mythology which underpins them, in order to have a deeper understanding of them you do require a grasp of some of the basic details of this myth.

"As the frost thawed, it became a cow called Audhumla and four rivers of milk ran from her teats, and she fed Ymir"

What? You are probably asking what the significance of this is, so lets take a pause from the Edda for a moment and instead look at the first rune, Fehu (Feoh) which is shown below.

This is a rune of fertility which is also associated with fire. Since as we just learned a few moments ago, fire was one of the two elements of the creation process, the fact Fehu (Feoh) is the first rune is not mere coincidence. Equally it is linked with cattle which should now make you think of Audhumla and her nourishing and sustaining role. When we consider the meanings of the runes we must be aware that they are supported and influenced by a complex mythology which is foreign to us. To really know them we must be prepared to relate to the runes on their own terms.

The Prose Edda then goes on to describe how the first true man (Ash) and woman (Elm) are made out of trees by Odin. It also introduces the gods and their activities. Here fans of J.R.R. Tolkien may get a shock for on one page we find almost the entire character list of The Hobbit. Tolkien was a scholar of literature and mythology and borrowed heavily from Norse mythology. He took the story of the trolls turning to stone from Alvismal and the riddle contest from Vafthrudismal. Hence while the mythology the runes belongs to, is alien to us, we must also be prepared for the fact that it has influenced our culture in many subtle ways and much more than we may be aware.

When the Younger Edda moves on to describing Yggdrasil there are a number of differences. The chief dwelling place of the gods is said to be by the ash and the tree's root now goes to heaven where before in the Poetic Edda it was said to be "over men". The Norns are no longer limited to just three and the subtle mechanism of Wyrd is no longer the key determinant in deciding when people die. It is more luck now depending on whether they meet a good or a bad Norn.

"The good Norns who come from good stock shape good lives, but those who meet with misfortune owe it to the evil Norns

After completing the description of Yggdrasil the Younger Edda lists some of the other important places in heaven such as Alfheim where the light elves live, and Valaskjalf (Valhalla) the hall of the warriors slain in battle.

Gangleri continues his questioning and there are clear indications of how the gods are toying with him in their answers.

"A well informed man would not ask this. Everyone knows why. However if you are the only person so ill-informed as never to have heard, I'll admit it is better for you to ask once in your foolishness than for you to go on any longer in ignorance of what you ought to know"

Much of the material on the gods which is given in the Prose Edda has already been considered in Lessons 2 and 3. It also repeats some tales found in its predecessor. One story though concerning Thor's visit to Utgard-Loki is new and worth examining because of the insight into magic, the gods and society which it offers. Arriving at the stronghold the king challenges Thor and his companion gods to prove themselves worthy to stay.

"We don't allow anyone to stay with us who is not a past master of some craft or accomplishment

First Loki tries and fails in an eating contest. Next Thjalfi offers to outrun anyone Utgard-Loki nominates, but the gods do not realize that the king is a devious sorcerer using magic to deceive then, and hence Thjalfi also fails since his opponent, Hugi, is no man but Utgard-Loki's thoughts. It is left to Thor then to save the honor of the gods and he suggests a drinking contest. Utgard-Loki calls for his drinking horn to be brought forth.

"We consider it good drinking if this horn is drained at one drink, some men take two to empty it, but no one is such a wretched drinker that he can't finish it in three"

What Thor doesn't realize is that the tip of the horn is in the ocean so the tide refills it and hence he fails to make any impression upon the contents of the horn after three attempts. Mocking him then Utgard-Loki suggests an alternative.

"Youngsters here perform the feat - It's not thought much of - of lifting my cat up from the ground"

Once again Thor fails, only barely managing to raise the cat at all. What appears to be a cat is in reality though the infamous Midgard Serpent which is coiled around the world. Finally the shamed Thor attempts a wrestling contest with the woman Elli however she too is not what she appears and no-one can beat old age.

This story is illustrative in a number of ways. Firstly it demonstrates that the gods are not infallible. Even a trickster god like Loki is capable of being duped. Secondly it shows the importance of life in the hall where men joined together in feasting and telling tales of their exploits. A man's status came directly from his deeds and the only way he would be known outside his own region would be by reputation. Hence the considerable shame Thor must have felt when Utgard-Loki teases him suggesting tales of his great strength were an exaggeration. Finally it indicates the areas of prowess a man could have which would bring him admiration such as drinking or physical skills such as running or wrestling.

The last thing Gangleri/Gylfi hears before the gods eject him from heaven is the list of events that will transpire at Ragnarok when the gods are destined to fall. We often refer in these lectures to the force of Wyrd in connection with the runes and the gods are themselves often one of the means by which Wyrd takes effect. However Ragnarok is proof that the gods themselves are not immune to it. They too must face the consequences of their actions such as murder and breaking of contracts.

Skaldskaparmal

The title of the second section of the Younger Edda translates as "Poetic Diction" and deals with a literary device much utilized in ancient poetry, the kenning. This is a type of metaphor which consists of two or more words none of which directly means the same as the image to which they are referring. For example a boat could be "shoe of the sea" or a sword could be "icicle of iron". Sometimes these kennings only make sense if someone is previously acquainted with a specific tale, eg gold is "Sif's hair" or gold is "otter's ransom". It is with explaining these second type of kenning which the Skaldskaparmal concerns itself. A typical example concerns the expression "mouthful of giants" which means "gold" and refers to a giant Olvadi

"He possessed a great deal of gold and when he died and his sons were going to divide the inheritance, they allotted the gold they were sharing between them in this way: each was to take the same sized mouthfuls of it

Interestingly it then goes on to say

"and we conceal it in runes or poetry by calling it their speech or words or reckoning

This suggests two things about rune usage at this time. Firstly they had an ordinary as well as magical use and secondly it (sometimes) used the same elevated poetic diction as poetry. It also suggests they were used for concealment which is consistent with what we have already learned. Other than this though the Younger Edda has much less to say about runes than its predecessor. Its importance really is filling in the mythological background and since it is prose most people find it easier to use than the Poetic Edda. For information on the runes specifically there is one more important source but before we can go on to look at this we need to familiarize ourselves with the different versions of the runic alphabet which existed.

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You have completed the lesson. Read it as many times as you need to in order to feel you understand it. Then return here for:
Lesson 6 - Comprehension Tests, Reading and Further Exercises

Please ensure you complete these exercises before moving on to the next lesson.